Nora Ephron was an American screenwriter-director best known for writing and directing Sleepless in Seattle (1993), You've Got Mail (1998), and Julie & Julia (2009). She was also known for her journalism and novels (McGill, 2017).
Her movies are noted as portraying characters which "achieve a sense of honesty" (Beggs, 2012). However, overall, her films have been dubbed 'classic' mainly due to the fact that she knew her own voice, and thus had her own distinct style as a writer-director (Lenker, 2019).
Screenwriting
"writing starts with living. It’s a dual process of getting out into the world and discovering what turns you on followed by having the alone time to get it all down. Making movies cannot be your only love because you have to have something to fill your camera with”
(Nora Ephron, quoted in Beggs, 2012).
To be a screenwriter, Ephron believed the most important thing was to not only write about own experience, but to go out into the world and see things which could be turned into films (Nora Ephron: The Key to Being a Writer, 2013). Thus, she thought that her screenwriting was helped by her former job of being a journalist, since it helped her to see beyond herself and learn about others' characters and motivations, as well as how to collect information which could make a compelling story (Lenker, 2019).
Characters - writing strong women
Ephron's journalistic background is evident in the characters that she writes, most notably the strong female characters which are at the center of many of her movies (Hammond, 2012). This is because she aims for these characters to be, as she said, “as complicated and interesting as women actually are” (Krizanovich, 2012).
To do this, Ephron gives all of her characters qualities which can be understood by a wide audience (Hammond, 2012), which, again helped by her journalism, were inspired by what she saw was happening in the world (Lenker, 2019).
However, some of Ephron's representations of women were partly also inspired by her own life, but were still able to mirror what other women were experiencing and could relate to, since they matched current events. For example, Ephron loved cooking, which helped inspire Julie & Julia, despite the film also being an adaptation of a recent bestselling book (Hammond, 2012).
By using both this book and her own passion for cooking, Ephron was able to combine food with friendship - common themes throughout her films - which were not often portrayed on screen with regards to women (McGill, 2017).
This shows that complex characters can be created if a writer writes what they know and are passionate about, yet by combing this with current events, characters can thus also become relatable to a wider audience, who are more likely to be able to understand the characters' experiences in relation to their own lives (Beggs, 2012).
Genre
The genre of the romantic comedy centers on relationships and society, often using strong leads, such as those written by Ephron, to present a man and woman who, although at first may dislike each other, or may be attracted to each other, have to fight either external or internal conflict to end up together (Friedmann, 2010:168).
Ephron's You've Got Mail follows this structure almost exactly, yet she is credited with renewing the genre to create the modern rom-com (McGill, 2017). This is due to the way that Ephron used her own distinct voice in her movies "to pinpoint the idiosyncrasies of human relationships that both felt hyper-specific and utterly relatable” (Lenker, 2019).
Most evident in Sleepless in Seattle, it can be seen that Ephron changed the genre by having the relationships of her characters develop differently to those in other romantic comedies, such as having her two characters in Sleepless in Seattle explore the idealistic nature of romance in films, and whether this was reachable or not (Hammond, 2012).
Thus, Ephron's romantic comedies focus not only on her characters' relationships, but also on their lives, as she often lets the audience in on the fact that the characters are 'destined' to be together, allowing viewers to speculate throughout the movie as the characters realise what is going on whilst dealing with the conflict from their lives (Hammond, 2012).
Ephron's You've Got Mail follows this structure almost exactly, yet she is credited with renewing the genre to create the modern rom-com (McGill, 2017). This is due to the way that Ephron used her own distinct voice in her movies "to pinpoint the idiosyncrasies of human relationships that both felt hyper-specific and utterly relatable” (Lenker, 2019).
Most evident in Sleepless in Seattle, it can be seen that Ephron changed the genre by having the relationships of her characters develop differently to those in other romantic comedies, such as having her two characters in Sleepless in Seattle explore the idealistic nature of romance in films, and whether this was reachable or not (Hammond, 2012).
Fig. 1 YouTube: You've Got Mail - Worst Version of Yourself Scene (2016)
This can also be seen in You've Got Mail by how she uses the two characters' conversations over email to bring the audience nearer to the characters' thoughts, as well as their concerns, focusing on the contrast between how they like each other over email, but hate each other in real life, and how this changes when they discover they are emailing each other (McGill, 2017). These thoughts make the contrast more stark than it would be if the audience were not aware of them, since it highlights how the characters are almost each living a double life (see fig. 1).Thus, Ephron's romantic comedies focus not only on her characters' relationships, but also on their lives, as she often lets the audience in on the fact that the characters are 'destined' to be together, allowing viewers to speculate throughout the movie as the characters realise what is going on whilst dealing with the conflict from their lives (Hammond, 2012).
Dialogue
Ephron not only uses emails to bring the audience closer to the characters' thoughts, but also phone calls and blogging, as well as talk over the radio as forms of dialogue (McGill, 2017). Thus, one of the trademarks of her style is voiceover, which also often serves to link the characters and their narratives.
An example of this is the radio in Sleepless in Seattle. Ephron uses one character's call to a radio station as a way for the other main character to become aware of him and thus begin the narrative. For this reason, it can be seen that Ephron's movies are character-driven; the stories occur in consequence of her characters' actions, thus the comedy evident in her films also comes from the characters, as well as the dialogue which serves as a way to tell jokes (Lenker, 2019).
Much this humour is ironic, such as when her characters refer to the movies in some way (Lenker, 2019). Characters appear on TV, watch TV and also mouth the lines of characters on the TV, also serving to link them to the characters which appear there. For example, in Julie & Julia, the parallel narratives are often linked by one character watching another on the TV, which prompts her to act and speak differently as she imitates the character she sees there (see fig. 3).
Much this humour is ironic, such as when her characters refer to the movies in some way (Lenker, 2019). Characters appear on TV, watch TV and also mouth the lines of characters on the TV, also serving to link them to the characters which appear there. For example, in Julie & Julia, the parallel narratives are often linked by one character watching another on the TV, which prompts her to act and speak differently as she imitates the character she sees there (see fig. 3).
Happy endings
Yet, despite the irony and sarcasm of Ephron's movies, there is always a happy ending, creating what is said to be a balance of "harshness and hope"(McGill, 2017).
It has been argued that this balance represents Ephron as a person, since, “she was romantic without lasting bitterness or fear, saw life clearly without fudging a word” (Krizanovich, 2012). This is evident through the way her dialogue reflects her own disposition and thoughts, but also current events (Lenker, 2019), similar to how she creates complex characters.
Using this balance in her films was how Ephron managed to characterise "the modern romantic comedy" (McGill, 2017).
Using this balance in her films was how Ephron managed to characterise "the modern romantic comedy" (McGill, 2017).
Themes
Fig. 2 Sleepless in Seattle (1993)
However, it can be seen that all of Ephron's movies work to a central theme (or "deep subject") with every scene conveying this theme to the audience (Hunter Johnson, 2015:167).
For example, in Sleepless in Seattle, the theme used is destiny, as the characters speculate over whether the romantic ideology seen in movies is possible for them. This is conveyed through scenes such as one where the two characters meet on the top of the Empire State Building. Throughout the film, characters refer to the fact certain things are "signs", culminating in this end scene where a heart on the side of a skyscraper (see fig. 2) prompts this meeting. However, destiny is portrayed since the two characters almost miss each other, but overcome the final obstacles to meet each other in the end.
For example, in Sleepless in Seattle, the theme used is destiny, as the characters speculate over whether the romantic ideology seen in movies is possible for them. This is conveyed through scenes such as one where the two characters meet on the top of the Empire State Building. Throughout the film, characters refer to the fact certain things are "signs", culminating in this end scene where a heart on the side of a skyscraper (see fig. 2) prompts this meeting. However, destiny is portrayed since the two characters almost miss each other, but overcome the final obstacles to meet each other in the end.
Parallel narratives
Fig. 3 IMDb: Julie & Julia (2009)
Ephron also portrays this theme of destiny through parallel narratives - (see similarities between characters in directing trademarks also). Parallel narratives occur when a writer presents two simultaneous storylines together and cuts between them (Rabiger, 2017:192). By doing this a writer can show only the most essential parts of each narrative, prompting the audience to speculate how and why they fit together, thus encouraging the audience to think about what is being presented by the film (Rabiger, 2017:191).
This is most evident in Ephron's Julie & Julia, where she mainly uses blogging to link the two main characters, but also similar events, such as dealing with book publishers, one character watching the other on TV, and thus this character imitating the other by cooking what she does, as well as dressing and talking like her (see fig. 3).
Ephron thus uses these parallel narratives in Julie & Julia to show how one character acts as the other's hero and mentor, and to make evident the similarities between them as they both wonder about what they are doing/should be doing with their lives.
For this reason, it can be argued that destiny is a theme which is present throughout most of Ephron's movies - in Julie & Julia, characters speculate about what they are destined to do with their lives, just as the characters in Sleepless in Seattle speculate about what destiny is and if it can possibly be achieved, and the characters in You've Got Mail, slowly realise they are destined for each other as they live their double lives over email conversations and meetings in real life.
This is most evident in Ephron's Julie & Julia, where she mainly uses blogging to link the two main characters, but also similar events, such as dealing with book publishers, one character watching the other on TV, and thus this character imitating the other by cooking what she does, as well as dressing and talking like her (see fig. 3).
Ephron thus uses these parallel narratives in Julie & Julia to show how one character acts as the other's hero and mentor, and to make evident the similarities between them as they both wonder about what they are doing/should be doing with their lives.
For this reason, it can be argued that destiny is a theme which is present throughout most of Ephron's movies - in Julie & Julia, characters speculate about what they are destined to do with their lives, just as the characters in Sleepless in Seattle speculate about what destiny is and if it can possibly be achieved, and the characters in You've Got Mail, slowly realise they are destined for each other as they live their double lives over email conversations and meetings in real life.
Directing Trademarks
Nora Ephron originally started in the film industry as a screenwriter, but decided to begin directing "to protect her writing" (Beggs, 2012), as well as to ensure that her films would still go into production, and to assure that the personal aspect she felt towards her writing would be translated into the final product of the film (Nora Ephron: Becoming a Director, 2013).
Similarities between characters
Fig. 4 Julie & Julia (2009)
Similar to how she uses parallel narratives and alternate forms of dialogue/voiceover to link characters with her screenwriting, Ephron also portrays this through her directing by intertwining shots of characters in similar places or doing similar things, as well as using shots showing characters together, to highlight the similarities between them.For example, Ephron uses similar shots to link the two parallel narratives in Julie & Julia through framing and the positioning of the characters (Bordwell & Thompson, 2013:74) - (compare fig. 4 with fig. 9).
Fig. 5 YouTube: Sam is Sleepless in Seattle - Sleepless in Seattle (1/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012)
Yet, another example of this can be seen in this shot from Sleepless in Seattle - see fig. 5 - as Ephron uses a two shot of one of the main characters and his son to portray their relationship by highlighting how similar they are through their actions and how they are positioned (Huls, 2016). By showing them in the same shot, sitting together, Ephron shows the audience that they are close, even alike, by how they are sitting in similar positions, and both holding phones to their ears. Showing the characters together like this also reflects the fact that they have been through a tragedy together, which could be the reason for this closeness, emphasised by the close framing which focuses the audience on the characters' emotions.Single shots
Fig. 6 YouTube: Finally Meeting - Sleepless in Seattle (8/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012)
Nonetheless, another way Ephron focuses the audience on her characters' emotions is through single shots. By doing this, Ephron isolates each character, and thus the audience can only make a connection between them through how each of their separate single shots are cut together, meaning the audience are either with one character or the other, but never with both (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:298). Filming each character separately and using medium close-ups, Ephron encourages the audience to focus on their each of the character's emotions separately (Rea & Irving, 2015:188).For example, when the two characters finally meet in Sleepless in Seattle, Ephron first shows them both separately in medium close-ups, as they have both appeared in separate narratives up to this point (see fig. 6). However, since this meeting is where their two parallel narratives join, she then uses a wide shot to visually link the characters and their narratives together, showing their relation to each other in the space.
By doing this Ephron can control how the audience convey the relationship of the characters - seeing them in over the shoulder shots or together in a wide shot portrays to the audience that the characters are more related than the separation which is inferred by the use of single shots (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:298).
Repetition - Jump cuts
A jump cut happens when two shots showing the same subject, which also have a similar framing, are cut together so one is shown immediately after the other, resulting in a jarring effect which makes the audience feel as if part of the sequence which could join these shots together is missing (Bordwell & Thompson, 2013:258). Thus, a jump cut breaks the traditional style of continuous editing by breaking a sequence's flow of time and space (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:132).
Ephron uses jump cuts to show routine and repetition, most often showing her characters at work on the phone. In Julie & Julia, these cuts emphasise the amount of clients Julie has to talk to over the phone for her office job, and how little power she has despite having to deal with so many people, whereas in Sleepless in Seattle, Ephron uses jump cuts to show one character making enquiries over the phone as she searches for information about the other character, highlighting the extent and depth of her search.
However, these examples also serve to put the audience in the character's minds by emphasising what is playing on their minds - Julie isn't sure what to do with her life so feels powerless, while in Sleepless in Seattle, the other main character is constantly on the other's mind, which is what has prompted her search for him.
Overall, by using jump cuts in this way, Ephron is able to show what could be a long time in the character's lives, but condense it so that the audience learn only the information they need to understand the story.
Overhead wide shots
Fig. 7 YouTube: You've Got Mail - Elevator Scene (2009)
In this example from You've Got Mail (see fig. 7), Ephron uses a high angle shot of the group of characters stuck in the elevator, including one of the main characters, Joe.
By using this angle, Ephron makes the audience more likely to empathise with Joe, since he looks small, and thus vulnerable (Delaney, 2018). This is particularly effective at this point in the narrative, since Joe is in physical danger, since he is trapped in the lift, but the audience have also just began to see the vulnerable side of him since being in this enclosed space highlights his strained relationship with his girlfriend, which throughout the film it can be seen he feels trapped in. Thus, Ephron uses this shot to visually show how he feels physchologically trapped, bringing the audience closer to his thoughts.
Outside shots
Fig. 8 YouTube: Julie & Julia (2009) - Julia Child Hates Me Scene (9/10) | Movieclips (2017)
Another technique Ephron uses to show the character's thoughts is by framing them by doors or windows, so it is as if the audience are looking into the character's lives from afar. This creates the sense of a third person view of the story, presenting the narrative from an objective point of view, and thus distancing the audience (Proferes, 2013:37).
However - as seen by the above shot from Julie & Julia (see fig. 8) - despite these shots distancing the audience from the characters, they can help to highlight what they are feeling and thus bring the audience closer to what they are thinking.
Using a long shot to frame Julia in this scene emphasises her surroundings, most notably the door frame, and how it traps her in the frame (StudioBinder, 2018). Since this shot is the first of the scene, it has not yet been revealed to the audience what is wrong with Julia, yet the framing of this shot helps to show she is trapped by what she is thinking, that she can't stop thinking about it. Her position helps the audience infer that she is fed up, thus the audience are closer to what she is thinking through posture/acting, and framing, despite the distance, which actually helps to decipher what she is thinking and feeling because of how it highlights the framing created by the door.
Sitting in an L shape
Fig. 9 YouTube: Julie & Julia (2009) - I Love to Eat Scene (1/10) | Movieclips (2017)
It has been argued that the only possible staging pattern when positioning two actors is to stage the scene so they are directly facing each other, in an I shape (Katz, 1991:176). However, Ephron typically stages actors so that while they are still in an I shape from the camera's perspective (see fig. 9), they are actually sat in an L shape.
By doing this, as Ephron does with the wide shot from Sleepless in Seattle (see fig. 5), the audience are better able to understand the relationship of the characters. Yet, Ephron takes this one step further with this staging, since by combining this with a two shot Ephron is able to put the audience in a position where the character's body language and expressions are as visible as they would be close-up (Katz, 1991:175).
Thus, their relationship can be distinguished by the audience not only from the staging, but also from how the actors use expressions and body language to portray the characters' inner thoughts and feelings.
Overall, it can be seen that both Ephron's directing and writing style aims to bring the audience closer to the characters. She does this by using framing and shot size to show their emotions, dialogue which highlights the character's viewpoints and idiosyncrasies, and common themes which help highlight similarities, but also by writing what she knows or the current events she observes.
This gives her films a character-driven approach, which encompasses both the hardships of life and relationships, as well as the hope things can be like they appear in the movies, portrayed by her happy endings and references to movies within her movies.
By doing this, as Ephron does with the wide shot from Sleepless in Seattle (see fig. 5), the audience are better able to understand the relationship of the characters. Yet, Ephron takes this one step further with this staging, since by combining this with a two shot Ephron is able to put the audience in a position where the character's body language and expressions are as visible as they would be close-up (Katz, 1991:175).
Thus, their relationship can be distinguished by the audience not only from the staging, but also from how the actors use expressions and body language to portray the characters' inner thoughts and feelings.
Overall, it can be seen that both Ephron's directing and writing style aims to bring the audience closer to the characters. She does this by using framing and shot size to show their emotions, dialogue which highlights the character's viewpoints and idiosyncrasies, and common themes which help highlight similarities, but also by writing what she knows or the current events she observes.
This gives her films a character-driven approach, which encompasses both the hardships of life and relationships, as well as the hope things can be like they appear in the movies, portrayed by her happy endings and references to movies within her movies.
Influence on our film
Screenwriting
The main way Nora Ephron's screenwriting inspired my own is that this helped me decide to try and write a character who was affected by an issue which reflects current events. Thus, I considered the amount of superhero movies which have come out in recent years, and decided to make my own based more in real life so that it could be more relatable to the audience.
For this reason, I also aimed to have the conflict and slight comedy come from the characters, such as Cathryn's main obstacle/conflict being her boss. I was also influenced to try and make some of the more comedic moments come from the characters through references to other movies, which is one of Nora Ephron's trademarks. Thus, I had my characters refer to The Wizard of Oz:
Nonetheless, Nora Ephron's central theme of destiny also influenced me in that I decided to have the inciting incident make Cathryn question what she is doing with her life, since a big part of her character is that her life revolves only around work.
I found that this helped make Cathryn more likely to change throughout the story, as it helps set up the potential for her to leave investment banking to become a graphic novelist, completely changing her life.
For this reason, I also aimed to have the conflict and slight comedy come from the characters, such as Cathryn's main obstacle/conflict being her boss. I was also influenced to try and make some of the more comedic moments come from the characters through references to other movies, which is one of Nora Ephron's trademarks. Thus, I had my characters refer to The Wizard of Oz:
Nonetheless, Nora Ephron's central theme of destiny also influenced me in that I decided to have the inciting incident make Cathryn question what she is doing with her life, since a big part of her character is that her life revolves only around work.
I found that this helped make Cathryn more likely to change throughout the story, as it helps set up the potential for her to leave investment banking to become a graphic novelist, completely changing her life.
Directing
Nora Ephron's directing style inspired me to think about how, as a director, I could control how the audience see the relationship between Cathryn and Mattie. Thus, I also used single shots to separate them, as Ephron does, since they disagree during the conversation. However, I did decide to open the conversation with a wide shot, just to establish the space, and that there is a relation between them, coming back to the wide at the end of the conversation to show Cathryn's reaction since it is in response to Mattie - it is related to her, highlighted by the shot showing this relation.
Therefore, because I wanted to show Cathryn's reaction in a wide shot like this, I decided to stage the conversation so that they were sitting in an L shape, since then the audience could still clearly see her expression and body language, even though we had cut away from a close-up.
Ephron's use of jump cuts also influenced me to try and use them to show what is going on in Cathryn's mind by showing her boredom through emphasising the repetitive nature of her job. I choose jump cuts to do this since they are able to show a long time quickly and connect different locations/subjects.
I was also inspired by how Nora Ephron uses doorways and windows to frame her characters from outside, thus boxing them in and distancing the audience.
I decided to use this type of shot during the scenes when Cathryn was on the phone to her boss, since it was able to highlight how trapped Cathryn feels, bringing the audience closer to what she is thinking and feeling - fearing losing her job, despite also feeling trapped by its constant repetition - despite the distance of the camera, which still helped convey how she felt and what was thinking since it made the shot more objective.
List of illustrations
Figure 1. You've Got Mail - Worst Version of Yourself Scene (2016) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLj_oPVgaJI&list=PLc9QYgv46S0PGGPtQTJAXNWYRHDbjh5pd&index=15 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 2. Sleepless in Seattle (1993) Directed by Ephron, N. [DVD] California: TriStar Pictures.
Figure 3. Julie & Julia (2009) [IMDb webpage] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1135503/?ref_=nv_sr_1?ref_=nv_sr_1 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 4. Julie & Julia (2009) [Film still] In: Bordwell, D. & Thompson, K. (2013) Film Art: An Introduction (10th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Figure 5. Sam is Sleepless in Seattle - Sleepless in Seattle (1/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdehPsCJab8 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 6. Finally Meeting - Sleepless in Seattle (8/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qeY1mkXqKgk (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 7. You've Got Mail - Elevator Scene (2009) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7eMH8QoMZk (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 8. Julie & Julia (2009) - Julia Child Hates Me Scene (9/10) | Movieclips (2017) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApANYuSl7A0 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 9. Julie & Julia (2009) - I Love to Eat Scene (1/10) | Movieclips (2017) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSQ770iqDgY (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 2. Sleepless in Seattle (1993) Directed by Ephron, N. [DVD] California: TriStar Pictures.
Figure 3. Julie & Julia (2009) [IMDb webpage] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1135503/?ref_=nv_sr_1?ref_=nv_sr_1 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 4. Julie & Julia (2009) [Film still] In: Bordwell, D. & Thompson, K. (2013) Film Art: An Introduction (10th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Figure 5. Sam is Sleepless in Seattle - Sleepless in Seattle (1/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdehPsCJab8 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 6. Finally Meeting - Sleepless in Seattle (8/8) Movie CLIP (1993) HD (2012) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qeY1mkXqKgk (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 7. You've Got Mail - Elevator Scene (2009) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7eMH8QoMZk (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 8. Julie & Julia (2009) - Julia Child Hates Me Scene (9/10) | Movieclips (2017) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApANYuSl7A0 (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Figure 9. Julie & Julia (2009) - I Love to Eat Scene (1/10) | Movieclips (2017) [YouTube webpage] At: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSQ770iqDgY (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
References
Beggs, S. (2012) ‘6 Filmmaking Tips From Nora Ephron’ In: Film School Rejects. [online] At: https://filmschoolrejects.com/6-filmmaking-tips-from-nora-ephron-c3f6d9221eba/ (Accessed on 28 April 2019).
Bordwell, D. & Thompson, K. (2013) Film Art: An Introduction (10th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Delaney, D. (2018) 'The Sky-High Beauty of High-Angle Shots' In: Film School Rejects. [online] At: https://filmschoolrejects.com/the-sky-high-beauty-of-high-angle-shots/ (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Friedmann, A. (2010) Writing for Visual Media. (3rd ed.) Oxford: Focal Press.
Bordwell, D. & Thompson, K. (2013) Film Art: An Introduction (10th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Delaney, D. (2018) 'The Sky-High Beauty of High-Angle Shots' In: Film School Rejects. [online] At: https://filmschoolrejects.com/the-sky-high-beauty-of-high-angle-shots/ (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Friedmann, A. (2010) Writing for Visual Media. (3rd ed.) Oxford: Focal Press.
Hammond, P. (2012) ‘Nora Ephron: She Did It All With Style’ In: Deadline. [online] At:
Huls, A. (2016) 'Everything in Its Place: How Shot Composition Tells a Secret Story' In: Pond 5. [online] At: https://blog.pond5.com/9606-everything-in-its-place-how-shot-composition-tells-a-secret-story/ (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
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Hunter Johnson, C. (2015) Crafting Short Screenplays That Connect. (4th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Katz, S. (1991) Film Directing: Shot by Shot: Visualizing from Concept to Screen. Oxon: Focal Press.
Krizanovich, K. (2012) ‘Nora Ephron’s films – an overview’ In: The Telegraph. [online] At:
Lenker, M. (2019) ‘Nora Ephron’s producers on why her films deserve to be called ‘classic’’ In: Entertainment Weekly. [online] At:
McGill, H. (2017) ‘Nora Ephron: queen of hearts’ In: BFI. [online] At: https://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/features/nora-ephron-queen-hearts (Accessed on 28 April 2019).
Nora Ephron: Becoming a Director (2013) [interview online] Makers.com At: https://www.makers.com/profiles/591f27c5a8c7c4265c6428d0/55491e89e4b0f61941d553c1 (Accessed on 28 April 2019).
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Proferes, N. (2013) Film Directing Fundamentals: See Your Film Before Shooting. (3rd ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Rabiger, M. (2017) Developing Story Ideas. (3rd ed.) Oxon: Routledge.
Rabiger, M. & Hurbis-Cherrier, M. (2013) Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Rea, P. & Irving, D. (2015) Producing and Directing the Short Film and Video. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
StudioBinder (2018) The Ultimate Guide to Camera Shots [over 50+ Types of Shots and Angles in Film] At: https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-camera-shots/#LS (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
Nora Ephron: Becoming a Director (2013) [interview online] Makers.com At: https://www.makers.com/profiles/591f27c5a8c7c4265c6428d0/55491e89e4b0f61941d553c1 (Accessed on 28 April 2019).
Nora Ephron: The Key to Being a Writer (2013) [interview online] Makers.com At: https://www.makers.com/profiles/591f27c5a8c7c4265c6428d0/55491f05e4b08df3b6f27164 (Accessed on 28 April 2019).
Proferes, N. (2013) Film Directing Fundamentals: See Your Film Before Shooting. (3rd ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Rabiger, M. (2017) Developing Story Ideas. (3rd ed.) Oxon: Routledge.
Rabiger, M. & Hurbis-Cherrier, M. (2013) Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Rea, P. & Irving, D. (2015) Producing and Directing the Short Film and Video. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
StudioBinder (2018) The Ultimate Guide to Camera Shots [over 50+ Types of Shots and Angles in Film] At: https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-camera-shots/#LS (Accessed on 2 May 2019).
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