Fig. 1 Natalie Portman in Jackie (2016)
"Acting is about finding the spontaneity that makes a character and the play come to life (in) front of the audience. But getting there takes years of practice—from classroom training to research and text study to rehearsal to physical and mental exercises before and during the actual performance"
(Miller, 2015).
Since the director's main role on set is to collaborate with the actors (Rea & Irving, 2015:247), directors should have some knowledge of the acting process so they can provide the actors with helpful feedback and guidance (Martin Scorsese’s Tips for Directing Actors, 2020).
However, different actors use different processes, with several different styles of acting, each with their own techniques which can be used by actors (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:227).
Styles of Acting
Stanislavski - 'The System'
Konstantin Stanislavski's (sometimes spelt Stanislavsky) technique of acting - known as 'The System' - grew out of his wish to find a way for actors to be able to sound as they do in their everyday, off-stage lives, whilst they performed on stage, despite being surrounded by the fictionality of the set with an audience watching (Ates, 2018a). Thus, Stanislavski developed techniques which could help actors connect with their characters by fully considering themselves in the character's position, aiming to make performance more naturalistic and closer to everyday human behaviour, countering the over-the-top theatricality and exaggerated gestures which were commonly used by actors at the time (Ates, 2018a).
The System is therefore based on:
- Given circumstances - actors go through the script and make notes on all the facts they can find about their characters, asking questions about their circumstances, such as, where am I? When is it? Who am I? What relationships do I have? What has happened before (the beginning of the story)? - the intention of this was to help actors understand their characters through getting to know them, so that they could begin to craft the world they live in (Archer, 2017).
- The "magic if" - an actor should build enough knowledge of their characters' circumstances to be able to understand how their character would respond to a situation (Ates, 2018a).
- Tasks and objectives - actors should also consider what their character does - known as their character's 'tasks' - determining the action they need to carry out to accomplish each task, and why, as well as the character's objectives, and the obstacles they may face in reaching any of their objectives (Ates, 2018a).
From this, Stanislavski's 'System' aims for actors to create an 'interior life' for their characters (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:229). Stanislavski saw that when actors concentrated on answering these questions about their characters for each beat of the script they were so preoccupied with their character's interior life that their acting became less over-the-top and exaggerated, instead seeming more naturalistic (Ates, 2018a).
Actors were able to further continue their character's interior life by paying attention to the other actors they performed with - since these actors become a part of their character's circumstances - and keeping their performances flexible and spontaneous, rather than focusing on giving a pre-determined performance, since this created a natural interaction with each actor watching and listening to the other, adjusting their performances in the moment (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:229). Stanislavski intended for actors to question their character's circumstances continually throughout their performance, finding that this added "rigour" to acting, helping actors gain a thorough understanding of their characters (Ates, 2018a). This changed how actors prepared for roles, causing them to take up a process called 'scoring' - this occurs when actors consider their character's circumstances as they go over the dialogue, and understand the script's story and characters as a sequence of actions (Ates, 2018a).
Overall, "the System is about actually doing something instead of pretending to do something. If your character must clean a dish onscreen, an actor using the System would actually work to clean the dish—not just wag a cloth over a plate in meaningless circles", due to the technique's focus on naturalism and authenticity (Ates, 2018a).
Meisner
Sanford Meisner's technique encourages actors to gain inspiration from external sources, such as through reacting to the performances of the other actors in the scene (City Academy, s.d). This is in contrast with Method Acting's focus on internal sources - which was influenced by Stanislavski's 'System' - a method Meisner was involved in developing, along with Stella Adler, as part of the theatre group run by Lee Strasberg (City Academy, s.d).
Meisner believed that this "mental approach" - such as focusing on a character's 'given circumstance' - was too internalised for an actor, and thus focused on turning an actor's attention to the other actors in the scene, believing that their interaction "creates a tension the audience can observe" (Ates, 2019a). Meisner therefore developed exercises which allow an actor to find ideas for their acting which are caused by their interactions with the other actors they perform with (Ates, 2019a).
The three main parts of the Meisner Technique are:
- "Emotional preparation
- Repetition
- Improvisation"
(Ates, 2019a).
What Meisner called 'emotional preparation' occurred when the actors made decisions because of, and were inspired by, the other actors in scene (Ates, 2019a). Meisner believed this was able to "deepen an actor’s awareness, as well as "necessitates that every actor make definitive choices that provoke creative reactions", causing the actors to create their performances off of each other (Ates, 2019a).
Nevertheless, the Meisner Technique is based on repetition, as this allows actors to focus on external sources which can help them find, and learn to start depending on, their natural instincts (Ates, 2019a). Meisner believed that naturalistic performances which mirrored human behaviour were created when these instincts, influenced by external sources, were used by the actor (Ates, 2019a).
Therefore, Meisner developed what is known as "The Repetition Exercise" - this is when an actor stands face-to-face with another actor and makes a comment about the other actor, the other actor then repeating this comment, but adding to it (City Academy, s.d). By carrying out this exercise actors are encouraged to concentrate on the actions of each other, rather than on lines - what Meisner called the "reality of doing" (City Academy, s.d). Meisner believed that actors learning to react to each other in this way could lead them to find new meanings in scenes (City Academy, s.d).
This focus on reaction is how improvisation is part of the Meisner Technique - Meisner believed that the actor should make all of their decisions based on external sources, such as reacting to another actor, since responding to external sources encourages an actor to stay in the moment as they perform because they have to be alert to these external sources (Ates, 2019a). These external sources which inspire the actor create the 'given circumstances', and once these have been established by the actor, they can then build the character's interior life, according to Meisner (Ates, 2019a).
Because of this focus on improvisation and external sources, it has been suggested that "the Meisner technique can be helpful to actors who overcomplicate emotions or choices with overly-intellectual analysis or scene prep" (Ates, 2019a).
Meisner also encouraged actors to memorise lines without focusing on how they will deliver them, as well as rehearse them in this way so that they instead shape their delivery whilst they perform through reacting to other actors (Ates, 2019a). Due to this, the Meisner Technique can be used to enhance an actor's script analysis, and their work on scenes (Ates, 2019a).
Nevertheless, the Meisner Technique is based on repetition, as this allows actors to focus on external sources which can help them find, and learn to start depending on, their natural instincts (Ates, 2019a). Meisner believed that naturalistic performances which mirrored human behaviour were created when these instincts, influenced by external sources, were used by the actor (Ates, 2019a).
Therefore, Meisner developed what is known as "The Repetition Exercise" - this is when an actor stands face-to-face with another actor and makes a comment about the other actor, the other actor then repeating this comment, but adding to it (City Academy, s.d). By carrying out this exercise actors are encouraged to concentrate on the actions of each other, rather than on lines - what Meisner called the "reality of doing" (City Academy, s.d). Meisner believed that actors learning to react to each other in this way could lead them to find new meanings in scenes (City Academy, s.d).
This focus on reaction is how improvisation is part of the Meisner Technique - Meisner believed that the actor should make all of their decisions based on external sources, such as reacting to another actor, since responding to external sources encourages an actor to stay in the moment as they perform because they have to be alert to these external sources (Ates, 2019a). These external sources which inspire the actor create the 'given circumstances', and once these have been established by the actor, they can then build the character's interior life, according to Meisner (Ates, 2019a).
Because of this focus on improvisation and external sources, it has been suggested that "the Meisner technique can be helpful to actors who overcomplicate emotions or choices with overly-intellectual analysis or scene prep" (Ates, 2019a).
Meisner also encouraged actors to memorise lines without focusing on how they will deliver them, as well as rehearse them in this way so that they instead shape their delivery whilst they perform through reacting to other actors (Ates, 2019a). Due to this, the Meisner Technique can be used to enhance an actor's script analysis, and their work on scenes (Ates, 2019a).
Adler
Due to Stella Adler's belief that acting should be disciplined, - this stemming from her family who were professional actors, meaning that she performed herself from an early age - Adler believed that an actor should train their imagination by constantly staying aware to the "nuances of life" (Ates, 2018b). Thus, the main components of Adler's technique are imagination and discipline (Ates, 2018b).
Adler's technique was influenced by Stanislavski's 'System', and developed from Adler's disagreement with Strasberg's interpretation of 'The System' which focused on "affective memory" (also know as "emotional recall" ) - this is when an actor uses their own experiences and memories to make their performance more authentic, and is part of Strasberg's technique known as 'The Method' (Ates, 2018b).
Emotional recall was part of 'The System' in America at the time, but, when Adler travelled to Paris to tell Stanislavski of her disagreement with this method, he agreed, since, as Stanislavski was constantly editing 'The System', the concept of emotional recall to him was now outdated (Ates, 2018b). Yet, 'The System' still revolved around the idea that "actors should behave realistically in unrealistic circumstances by emphasizing the character’s circumstances and finding actions within those circumstances to complete seriously onstage" (Ates, 2018b). Therefore, Adler now wondered where actors would find the stimuli to be able to create these circumstances if they were not using their own experiences and memories - she decided on imagination, and received Stanislavski's agreement (Ates, 2018b).
For this reason, Adler believed that when an actor pays attention to details in their everyday lives - such as "textures, aesthetics, and sounds" - this builds their imagination, and allows them to be able to draw on these details, which they can then turn into images and use to stimulate a realistic performance (Ates, 2018b).
Adler encouraged actors to reach realistic performances by concentrating on their character's circumstances through analysis of the script (Ates, 2018b). Adler believed actors should look through their scripts and find "key elements that dictate the character's nature" - such as "social, economic, religious, geographic" factors, among others (Ates, 2018b). From these factors Adler proposed that actors should then decide on actions which can show their character's circumstances to the audience, thinking about how these circumstances are shown in everyday life by drawing on their observations (Ates, 2018b). Therefore, actors who use Adler's technique are required to be disciplined to constantly make observations of the world around them, in order to be able to draw from their imagination (Ates, 2018b).
Emotional recall was part of 'The System' in America at the time, but, when Adler travelled to Paris to tell Stanislavski of her disagreement with this method, he agreed, since, as Stanislavski was constantly editing 'The System', the concept of emotional recall to him was now outdated (Ates, 2018b). Yet, 'The System' still revolved around the idea that "actors should behave realistically in unrealistic circumstances by emphasizing the character’s circumstances and finding actions within those circumstances to complete seriously onstage" (Ates, 2018b). Therefore, Adler now wondered where actors would find the stimuli to be able to create these circumstances if they were not using their own experiences and memories - she decided on imagination, and received Stanislavski's agreement (Ates, 2018b).
For this reason, Adler believed that when an actor pays attention to details in their everyday lives - such as "textures, aesthetics, and sounds" - this builds their imagination, and allows them to be able to draw on these details, which they can then turn into images and use to stimulate a realistic performance (Ates, 2018b).
Adler encouraged actors to reach realistic performances by concentrating on their character's circumstances through analysis of the script (Ates, 2018b). Adler believed actors should look through their scripts and find "key elements that dictate the character's nature" - such as "social, economic, religious, geographic" factors, among others (Ates, 2018b). From these factors Adler proposed that actors should then decide on actions which can show their character's circumstances to the audience, thinking about how these circumstances are shown in everyday life by drawing on their observations (Ates, 2018b). Therefore, actors who use Adler's technique are required to be disciplined to constantly make observations of the world around them, in order to be able to draw from their imagination (Ates, 2018b).
Strasberg - 'The Method'
Lee Strasberg developed what is known as method acting from his own understanding of Stanislavski's 'System' (Ates, 2018c). Method acting is seen as "an internal, psychological technique that asserts an actor can train themselves, under regimented practice, to behave realistically under imaginary circumstances" (Ates, 2018c). Thus, when practising method acting, actors are encouraged to use their own experiences and the feelings these cause to improve the authenticity of their performance (Ates, 2018c).
Due to this focus on using experience, some method actors have been known to prepare for roles by having similar experiences to their characters (Ates, 2018c). For example, when preparing to play the lead role in Taxi Driver (1976), Robert De Niro attained a taxicab driver's license (see fig. 2) and it has been said that he spent a month picking up passengers in New York City (Weisman, 2014).
Not all method actors undergo this kind of preparation for a role (Timoney, 2016). Actors are not encouraged to relive their exact experiences on stage, but rather use their experiences to learn what causes certain emotions in order to replicate similar feelings during a performance (Ates, 2018c). Therefore, it is suggested that actors use their own experiences instead of creating new experiences which mirror those of their character, as the aim of method acting is to help actors "produce an authentic performance based on a scenario you have never encountered by working out its emotional core and relating this to experiences that brought out similar emotions in yourself" (Timoney, 2016).
So that actors could effectively use their own experiences in this way, as well as inhabit their character's given circumstances, Strasberg encouraged actors to do several things (Ates, 2018c). The first was to minimise stress, and determine where the actor's body was most tense and why, so that the actor could work on removing this tension, freeing them to be able to use their physicality to bring their character to life (Ates, 2018c).
After completing this, Strasberg taught actors to heighten their awareness of the world through improving their senses with methods such as concentrating on certain sounds, or not listening to others, almost like meditation - similar exercises to this were also encouraged by Strasberg for the other senses (Ates, 2018). Strasberg believed this was necessary so that an actor's senses developed a "hyper-attention" allowing them to intensely concentrate on their senses, and more effectively recreate reactions and emotions which stem from their senses within their performances (Ates, 2018c).
This hyper-attention of the senses allowed actors to begin working on 'sense memory', Strasberg's interpretation of Stanislavski's concept of affective memory (Ates, 2018c). To develop sense memory, Strasberg encouraged actors to re-enact "mundane but intimate moments (like shaving, cooking, or waking up) with attention to realistic detail", sometimes even suggesting that actors perform private experiences, concentrating on their senses (Ates, 2018c). The aim of sense memory is to help the actors make their performances realistic and intimate, encouraging voyeurism in the audience as they watch the actor reveal the character moment by moment (Ates, 2018c).
Overall, when actors use method acting their performance encompasses not only the character's given circumstances, but also the actor's own experiences and memories, making the performance a mix of both the character and the actor (Ates, 2018c).
Hagen
Uta Hagen's technique utilises and develops techniques from Stanislavski's 'System' and Strasberg's 'Method', yet Hagen encouraged actors who used her technique to focus on grounding themselves with carrying out actions, and using preparation to build their confidence, rather than concentrating mainly on internal sources (Ates, 2019b).Therefore, the main components of Hagen's technique are:
- "substitution
- transference
- specificity
- authenticity
- and preparation"
(Ates, 2019b).
Hagen developed a method known as 'substitution', of which the aim was for "actors to find themselves in a part" (Ates, 2019b). Therefore, Hagen suggested that actors should work to identify with their characters "through a continuing and overlapping series of substitutions from our own experiences and remembrances, through the use of imaginative extension of realities, and put them in the place of the fiction in the play" (Hagen, 1973:34-5). This what Hagen called 'transference' (Ates, 2019b).
Hagen saw substitution and transference as alternatives to actors drawing feelings directly from their own experiences - as in method acting - since she believed that when actors tried to use moments from their experiences to influence their performance, these moments could be "distorted", as high emotion can often be illogical (Ates, 2019b). Hence, substitution instead aims to help the actor believe the circumstances of the play (Ates, 2019b).
As stated by Hagen, the goal of substitution is to "make me believe the time, the place, what surrounds me, the conditioning forces, my new character and my relationship to the other characters, in order to send me into the moment-to-moment spontaneous action of my newly selected self on stage" (Hagen, 1973:35). Due to this, Hagen recommended that actors should transfer only the "essence" of any experience - not the entirety of an experience - and combine it with the circumstances of the story (Hagen, 1973:40).
When searching for experiences to use for substitution, Hagen recommends actors look for moments where the circumstances of the play and the circumstances of their own life were similar (Ates, 2019b). An actor could do this for every beat their character goes through (Hagen, 1973:35), yet any substitution should provide a basis which an actor can use to make decisions about their character during their preparation and rehearsals, building their belief and confidence in the circumstances of the story (Ates, 2019b). Hagen points out that as the actor works to find substitutions, from the start of the actor's preparation up until the end of rehearsals, their substitutions will be changing and developing (Hagen, 1973:39). Yet, it is recommended that actors do not use experiences they cannot talk about as substitutions (Ates, 2019b).
The work of finding substitutions cannot be done by the director, but must be done by the actor because of how it is based on their own experience (Ates, 2019b). An actor can also not tell anyone what their substitutions are, since this can cause anyone else who knows the substitution to evaluate how effectively the actor is using this substitution, rather than how effectively they are performing an action, which then causes the actor to be unable to use the substitution again (Hagen, 1973:44).
Overall, substitution acts as a way to help the actor believe the circumstances of their character - nonetheless, the actor then needs to use these substitutions by turning them into action for their character, which they can then perform (Hagen, 1973:44).
Another way Hagen suggested that actors can establish actions for their characters was through "the establishment of destinations" - this is "the idea that an actor knows what to do or how to behave onstage by how they interact with objects and tools that would realistically be in the environment of the scene" (also known as "sourcing") (Ates, 2019b). This idea formed the basis of Hagen's "object exercises", which she developed to help actors practice how to realistically perform even when they weren't rehearsing for a part (Hagen, 1973:81-2). Due to the object exercise's emphasis on realism, Hagen encouraged actors to use props, costumes, and spaces which would help them achieve as much of a sense of realism as possible (Hagen, 1973:88).
The aim of establishing destinations through the use of these objects was to encourage actors to think in terms of their character's actions and objectives, similar to Stanislavski's focus on tasks and objectives and that the authenticity of an actor's performance depends on these (Ates, 2019b).
From this it can be seen that Hagen's technique provides actors with a balance between using internal sources - such as their own experiences to identify with their character - and external sources - such as objects to motivate their actions - to create a realistic performance (Ates, 2019b).
Actors learn and use several of these techniques, often not using only one, depending on the demands of their performance (Ates, 2019a). However, it can be seen that many American acting techniques use and build on methods established by Stanislavski's 'System' (Ates, 2018b).Hagen saw substitution and transference as alternatives to actors drawing feelings directly from their own experiences - as in method acting - since she believed that when actors tried to use moments from their experiences to influence their performance, these moments could be "distorted", as high emotion can often be illogical (Ates, 2019b). Hence, substitution instead aims to help the actor believe the circumstances of the play (Ates, 2019b).
As stated by Hagen, the goal of substitution is to "make me believe the time, the place, what surrounds me, the conditioning forces, my new character and my relationship to the other characters, in order to send me into the moment-to-moment spontaneous action of my newly selected self on stage" (Hagen, 1973:35). Due to this, Hagen recommended that actors should transfer only the "essence" of any experience - not the entirety of an experience - and combine it with the circumstances of the story (Hagen, 1973:40).
When searching for experiences to use for substitution, Hagen recommends actors look for moments where the circumstances of the play and the circumstances of their own life were similar (Ates, 2019b). An actor could do this for every beat their character goes through (Hagen, 1973:35), yet any substitution should provide a basis which an actor can use to make decisions about their character during their preparation and rehearsals, building their belief and confidence in the circumstances of the story (Ates, 2019b). Hagen points out that as the actor works to find substitutions, from the start of the actor's preparation up until the end of rehearsals, their substitutions will be changing and developing (Hagen, 1973:39). Yet, it is recommended that actors do not use experiences they cannot talk about as substitutions (Ates, 2019b).
The work of finding substitutions cannot be done by the director, but must be done by the actor because of how it is based on their own experience (Ates, 2019b). An actor can also not tell anyone what their substitutions are, since this can cause anyone else who knows the substitution to evaluate how effectively the actor is using this substitution, rather than how effectively they are performing an action, which then causes the actor to be unable to use the substitution again (Hagen, 1973:44).
Overall, substitution acts as a way to help the actor believe the circumstances of their character - nonetheless, the actor then needs to use these substitutions by turning them into action for their character, which they can then perform (Hagen, 1973:44).
Another way Hagen suggested that actors can establish actions for their characters was through "the establishment of destinations" - this is "the idea that an actor knows what to do or how to behave onstage by how they interact with objects and tools that would realistically be in the environment of the scene" (also known as "sourcing") (Ates, 2019b). This idea formed the basis of Hagen's "object exercises", which she developed to help actors practice how to realistically perform even when they weren't rehearsing for a part (Hagen, 1973:81-2). Due to the object exercise's emphasis on realism, Hagen encouraged actors to use props, costumes, and spaces which would help them achieve as much of a sense of realism as possible (Hagen, 1973:88).
The aim of establishing destinations through the use of these objects was to encourage actors to think in terms of their character's actions and objectives, similar to Stanislavski's focus on tasks and objectives and that the authenticity of an actor's performance depends on these (Ates, 2019b).
From this it can be seen that Hagen's technique provides actors with a balance between using internal sources - such as their own experiences to identify with their character - and external sources - such as objects to motivate their actions - to create a realistic performance (Ates, 2019b).
All of the techniques listed above focus on "the circumstances of a scene", encouraging actors to establish these circumstances so they can determine actions they can perform which fit them (Ates, 2018b). Yet, the techniques are different in the ways they suggest an actor identify these circumstances and actions (Ates, 2018b).
Preparing for a Role
The Actor's Script Analysis
It has been argued that an actor cannot gather all the information needed to bring a character to life by only reading the script, since this only provides "a fragment of information" (Cook, 2018). An actor needs to understand the subtext of the script in order to give an informed performance, which can be determined by analysing the script (Weston, 1996:163).
The aim of this preparation is to give the actor a thorough enough understanding of their character and their circumstances to be able to let go of this in the moment and be free to give a detailed performance (Miller, 2015). Actors work on script analysis in different ways, these commonly divided into two categories, known as "working from the outside in", and "working from the inside out" (Weston, 1996:56).
Actors who work from the inside out focus on "connecting in a relaxed way to whatever they understand about the script and trusting that as they commit honestly to what they understand, their understanding will deepen without effort", as this understanding helps them to open their mind so that they become aware of new ideas, knowledge and memories from their subconscious - known as "working organically" (Weston, 1996:56). In contrast, "working from the outside in" occurs when actors analyse the script from an intellectual point of view, and then focus on determining and building their subconscious understanding (Weston, 1996:56).
Analysis on a script usually begins with a read-through, during which initial ideas are discussed between the actors and the director, as well as research if this is required for the story (Cook, 2018).
The script may then be broken down into beats, or the director may decide to ask the actors questions about their character's motives for each line of dialogue (Cook, 2018). Actors may also highlight new information as it is revealed to their character, beats where their character undergoes significant change, analyse what their character's thoughts are behind certain lines, or consider questions about their character (Cook, 2018). Film actors may analyse their script fully in this way so that their performance is developed before filming begins (Cook, 2018).
Script analysis can be done collaboratively or by the actor individually, yet, an actor should do as much script analysis as allows them to feel that they have prepared enough, and understand the character well enough to bring them to life (Cook, 2018).
Actor Stephen McKinley-Henderson says that his process of finding a character comes from asking six questions: "What experience was his character coming from? What was he coming to? What was he coming to do? Why? Why now? What did he expect to happen?" (Miller, 2015). These questions help him to deepen his understanding of the character, and thus move away from his objective viewpoint as an actor, towards the subjective viewpoint of the character (Miller, 2015).
The overall goal of script analysis is for the actor to determine their character's objective, which is playable and can be turned into an action the actor can perform in the moment, and will reveal details about the character to the audience (Weston, 1996:104).
However, script analysis is never complete, as an actor can build on the analysis they have already done, or start again, if this is necessary to further their understanding of their character (Cook, 2018).
Actors who work from the inside out focus on "connecting in a relaxed way to whatever they understand about the script and trusting that as they commit honestly to what they understand, their understanding will deepen without effort", as this understanding helps them to open their mind so that they become aware of new ideas, knowledge and memories from their subconscious - known as "working organically" (Weston, 1996:56). In contrast, "working from the outside in" occurs when actors analyse the script from an intellectual point of view, and then focus on determining and building their subconscious understanding (Weston, 1996:56).
Analysis on a script usually begins with a read-through, during which initial ideas are discussed between the actors and the director, as well as research if this is required for the story (Cook, 2018).
The script may then be broken down into beats, or the director may decide to ask the actors questions about their character's motives for each line of dialogue (Cook, 2018). Actors may also highlight new information as it is revealed to their character, beats where their character undergoes significant change, analyse what their character's thoughts are behind certain lines, or consider questions about their character (Cook, 2018). Film actors may analyse their script fully in this way so that their performance is developed before filming begins (Cook, 2018).
Script analysis can be done collaboratively or by the actor individually, yet, an actor should do as much script analysis as allows them to feel that they have prepared enough, and understand the character well enough to bring them to life (Cook, 2018).
Actor Stephen McKinley-Henderson says that his process of finding a character comes from asking six questions: "What experience was his character coming from? What was he coming to? What was he coming to do? Why? Why now? What did he expect to happen?" (Miller, 2015). These questions help him to deepen his understanding of the character, and thus move away from his objective viewpoint as an actor, towards the subjective viewpoint of the character (Miller, 2015).
The overall goal of script analysis is for the actor to determine their character's objective, which is playable and can be turned into an action the actor can perform in the moment, and will reveal details about the character to the audience (Weston, 1996:104).
However, script analysis is never complete, as an actor can build on the analysis they have already done, or start again, if this is necessary to further their understanding of their character (Cook, 2018).
Research
However, it has been said that "sometimes the text does not or cannot contain all the answers" (Miller, 2015). Further information about a character and their circumstances can be understood by an actor through research - it has even been argued that "research always leads to more depth and a lot more layers because they know that world" (Lovelace, 2016).An actor can begin research by first determining what facts about their character are already in, or are implied by, the script (Lovelace, 2016). These facts allow the actor to outline their character's circumstances - such as class, age, time and place - which they can use to determine the research they need to work on (Lovelace, 2016).
Some actors find it is necessary for them to do historical research for roles, such as Crystal Dickinson when she played the role of a maid in the 1950s in the play Clybourne Park (Miller, 2015). Since her character did not say much, Dickinson had to invent a background for her, and imagine what the maid's life would be like outside of the house she works in, as well as how she would act at work (Miller, 2015). Dickinson used her knowledge of African-American history and culture, which she had previously gained from a degree in college, to determine more about how her character would act while working, and watched films from the 1950s which she thought that the character would have liked to watch with her husband, to add more to her circumstances outside of work (Miller, 2015).
Actors can also research the director of the project, which is part of how Jessica Chastain prepares for a role, by watching all the director's previous films to get to know the tone and world they like to work in (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 3, episode 11, 2014).
The location the story takes place in, the time period, any real people or events which are mentioned within the story, the occupation of their character, or any illnesses their character has should be researched by the actor (Johnston, 2013). It is also recommended that if the story has been adapted from another medium that the actor should be familiar with the source material, since this can also further their knowledge of their character (Johnston, 2013).
Factors such as occupation, illnesses, and locations, among others, are important for actors to research since these make up the circumstances of their character, which affect how the character behaves (Lovelace, 2016). Therefore, once the actor further understands their character's circumstances through research, they can use this to work on their character's physicality and dialect, which will depend on their circumstances (Lovelace, 2016). For this reason, a character's physicality and dialect should be specific to them, and different from the actor's (Hishon, 2016). Hence, Uta Hagen has argued that "essential to a serious actor is the training and perfecting of the outer instrument - comprising his body, his voice, and his speech", since if the actor's physicality and dialect do not fit the character's circumstances, then their performance will not be believable (Hagen, 1973:14).
Judging a Character
An actor should not judge their character, since these judgements are not playable, but cause the actor to objectively evaluate the character, rather than put themselves in the character's place (Weston, 1996:97). Even if the actor would not do what their character does, they should still try and imagine what kind of impulse could motivate someone to act in this way (Weston, 1996:97). It has been argued that "it is the actor's job to find that impulse and surrender to it honestly in the created reality" in order to give a believable and detailed performance (Weston, 1996:97).
Nonetheless, directors should also not judge characters. Laura Dern has said that the most important thing she needs from a director is for them to not judge her character "because if they're in judgement of her, then they're going to be in judgement of me, or choices I make" (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 1, episode 4, 2014). For this reason, Dern has said that the only thing which can harm her performance is if the director has judgements about a character she is playing, because of how this causes her to limit the decisions she makes about how to portray the character (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 1, episode 4, 2014).
Spontaneity
However, directors can also limit actors by telling them exactly what they should be doing in a scene, and when (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 3, episode 11, 2014). Jessica Chastain has said that she finds it better if a director allows her to "just be in the scene as the character and see what's coming at me", because, although she prepares for the scene, this preparation can change depending on how the scene plays out while the camera is rolling, and how the other actors perform (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 3, episode 11, 2014).
For this reason, although actors can prepare for a role through script analysis and research to gain a thorough understanding of their characters, they then need be prepared to let this go and be in the moment during the performance, using their preparation to stay true to the character, but also adapting to the moment by moment interaction of the scene (Miller, 2015).
For this reason, although actors can prepare for a role through script analysis and research to gain a thorough understanding of their characters, they then need be prepared to let this go and be in the moment during the performance, using their preparation to stay true to the character, but also adapting to the moment by moment interaction of the scene (Miller, 2015).
List of Illustrations
Figure 1. Natalie Portman in Jackie (2016) [Behind the scenes photograph, IMDb] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1619029/mediaviewer/rm1057817600 (Accessed on 16 April 2020).
Figure 2. Robert De Niro's taxicab license (2014) [Twitter] At: https://twitter.com/nyctaxi/status/469529448111685632 (Accessed on 16 April 2020).
Figure 3. Robert De Niro in Taxi Driver (1976) [Film still, IMDb] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075314/mediaviewer/rm4111710976 (Accessed on 16 April 2020).
References
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