Production - also known as principal photography - is when the director and producer take all their preparation and planning from pre-production and work to turn this into the film as shooting begins (Rea & Irving, 2015:239). This preparation is vital since it has been said that, "if you are well prepared, the shooting period merely means shifting into a higher gear", whilst a lack of preparation could lead to problems which may delay production (Rea & Irving, 2015:239).
However, despite having similar responsibilities during pre-production, the roles of the director and producer differ during production. Whilst on set, the director's role is to lead (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:383). Due to this, the director sets an example for the cast and crew and determines the tone on set - thus, a director should be mindful of how they share their vision for the project with the rest of the team, always aiming to be positive to help keep the cast and crew motivated (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:407).
The director's responsibilities during production are to:
This is because during production the producer is responsible for:
The director's responsibilities during production are to:
- Lead the cast and crew
- Direct actors - the cast should be the director's priority as the director is the first audience for the actor's performance, thus they should encourage them and ensure they feel comfortable on set, whilst being mindful of how each scene's performance fits into the overall film
- Collaborate with the crew
- Make choices for the production in a short amount of time, ensuring the production stays on schedule - a good director is able to do this because they have a clear vision for the film which has been planned during pre-production and now just needs to be realised during production
- Run-through and rehearse scenes with actors, blocking each scene so that every member of the production team knows what they need to do to film each shot
(Rea & Irving, 2015:247-255).
This is because during production the producer is responsible for:
- Monitoring the budget
- Supporting the cast and crew, and helping to keep them motivated
- Ensuring the shoot remains on schedule by making sure the team know what needs to be completed each day
- Making sure logistics for the shoot are in place - such as locations, transport and catering
- Monitoring safety on the set
- Making sure that the location is tidied up once filming has wrapped
- Monitoring equipment - that needed equipment arrives on set in time, and that any hired equipment is returned on time
- Making sure the cast and crew receive any documents they may need each day
- Ensuring dailies are saved and labelled
(Worthington, 2009:122).
Hence, it can be seen from these responsibilities that while the director leads the cast and crew during production, making decisions to execute the vision of the film (Rea & Irving, 2015:247), the producer can be considered as a "coordinator", through how they arrange locations, catering, and even the editing space ahead of post-production, ensuring that they "always keep ahead of the production unit to ensure that each day will go as planned" (Rea & Irving, 2015:257).
Fig. 1 Producer Kathleen Kennedy & Director Rian Johnson on the set of The Last Jedi (2018)
The Director's Script Analysis
One way the director prepares for production during pre-production is through analysing and breaking down the script in order to develop a shooting plan, which involves elements such as shot lists, overhead diagrams and storyboards (as covered in pre-production) - (Rea & Irving, 2015:57).
The goal of script analysis is for the director to develop enough knowledge of the story and characters, so that they can effectively bring the script to life on screen (Weston, 1996:163-4).
Steps the director can follow to analyse the script include:
The goal of script analysis is for the director to develop enough knowledge of the story and characters, so that they can effectively bring the script to life on screen (Weston, 1996:163-4).
Steps the director can follow to analyse the script include:
- Getting to know and understanding the script and its theme
- Creating a backstory for the main character(s)
- Determining the beats of each scene
- Determining each character's intentions and objectives during each scene
- Specifying the pacing and tone
(Rea & Irving, 2015:57).
The director must have a comprehensive understanding and knowledge of the script since, "at any given moment during production, the director must be able to focus her actors and crew on a specific dramatic moment and be aware of how it fits into the whole" (Rea & Irving, 2015:57). Thus, although script analysis is a step of pre-production, it is a process which becomes essential to the director during production.
Initial Notes
Therefore, when reading the screenplay for the first time, the director should read it entirely from beginning to end, thinking about their own initial responses to the characters, the story, and the effect it has on them emotionally, making notes on these when they have finished reading (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:83). During this first read-through, the director should not analyse the script, but rather enjoy it, considering what draws them to wanting to make the script into a film (Thomas, 2017).
From this first reading, the director should also determine what the theme of the screenplay is - the story's central idea - and write this down along with their initial responses since this theme can help the director make decisions as they begin visualising the film (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:84).
From this first reading, the director should also determine what the theme of the screenplay is - the story's central idea - and write this down along with their initial responses since this theme can help the director make decisions as they begin visualising the film (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:84).
After this, the director should read the screenplay a few more times, and use their notes of their initial responses to determine "what in the script gave me those feelings or ideas?", noting down in the margin where these emotions and ideas occurred, or occur as the director's notes and analysis of the script develops (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:84). As these margin notes develop, the director will eventually reach a stage where they have determined "moment by moment what you want your audience to feel, think, decide, understand while watching the film" (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:84).
The director can use these notes to then determine if they could use any symbolism through their choices of locations, lighting, props and costumes to show the script's deeper meanings, however, these should be added only if they fit naturally into the film (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:86).
Objectives therefore have two components - a physical component, so that when the character achieves their objective, this is signalled to the actor because an action occurs, and an emotional component, that is, that the character can either win or lose at achieving the objective (Weston, 1996:102). Overall, the goal of objectives is to create "conflict and a sense of event in the relationship, because the actors are doing something to each other rather than doing something to the lines" (Weston, 1996:103).
When breaking down each scene into its individual beats, a director should consider:
Beats can be marked on the script in pencil, with the strategy the character is using written in the margin - such as "to convince" - something typically done by actors (Cullens, 2019) - (see fig. 2).
Despite this, it can also be useful for directors to do, since this can help in their collaboration with the cast, as, when directing actors, the director needs to give them actions they can play in the scene, these needing to convey to the audience what the character wants - and how they intend to achieve this (Rea & Irving, 2015:58). Since these strategies should be able to be turned into playable direction, they should be written as "action verbs" - verbs which, like a character's objective, are part physical, part emotional (Weston, 1996:30).
The director can use these notes to then determine if they could use any symbolism through their choices of locations, lighting, props and costumes to show the script's deeper meanings, however, these should be added only if they fit naturally into the film (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:86).
Creating a Backstory
Another process the director may use to analyse the script is by creating a backstory for the main character, which they can use when helping the cast to shape their performances (Rea & Irving, 2015:57). This can be useful since there may be little, or even no, rehearsal time for the film, therefore, the director can use this backstory to help an actor quickly get to know their character by discussing their ideas about the character with them, as well as listening to the actor's ideas (Rea & Irving, 2015:57-8).Character Objectives
This backstory can help the director when breaking down each character's objectives (Rea & Irving, 2015:58). Each character will have only one objective per scene, which acts as the foundation for why the character acts the way they do during the scene - thus, even though the objective is what the character wants, it is important for directors to remember when determining these objectives that this might not be what the character achieves in the scene, but is the reason why they act in the way they do (Weston, 1996:105).Objectives therefore have two components - a physical component, so that when the character achieves their objective, this is signalled to the actor because an action occurs, and an emotional component, that is, that the character can either win or lose at achieving the objective (Weston, 1996:102). Overall, the goal of objectives is to create "conflict and a sense of event in the relationship, because the actors are doing something to each other rather than doing something to the lines" (Weston, 1996:103).
Beat Analysis
However, how an actor plays their character's objectives can be influenced by the story beats - defined as "a moment of change, a shift in the narrative flow" - with each scene being a "major beat" and each scene having its own series of beats which signify the character's internal and emotional journey through the story as their intentions and objectives shift and change (Rea & Irving, 2015:58).When breaking down each scene into its individual beats, a director should consider:
- "What are the beats?
- How will they be built?
- How will they be staged?
- What is the pace of each beat?
- How will each character move from one beat to the next?
- How do all the beats together make up the scene?"
(Rea & Irving, 2015:58).
Beats can be marked on the script in pencil, with the strategy the character is using written in the margin - such as "to convince" - something typically done by actors (Cullens, 2019) - (see fig. 2).
Despite this, it can also be useful for directors to do, since this can help in their collaboration with the cast, as, when directing actors, the director needs to give them actions they can play in the scene, these needing to convey to the audience what the character wants - and how they intend to achieve this (Rea & Irving, 2015:58). Since these strategies should be able to be turned into playable direction, they should be written as "action verbs" - verbs which, like a character's objective, are part physical, part emotional (Weston, 1996:30).
Fig. 2 Example of marking the beats of a script (2019)
The director can then carry this preparation into rehearsals, using the beats they determined for each scene to work with the actors to "discover and shape each of these beats" - known as "phrasing" a scene (Rea & Irving, 2015:59). These beats also help a director to start visualising the film, as they consider blocking, shots, and other ways to convey the information shown by these beats to the audience (Rea & Irving, 2015:59).
Along with a shooting plan, crib notes can also be used, which describe the beats of each scene, as well as the director's intentions for what the scene must convey - with one index card used for each scene - so that the director directs from a plan, and is therefore less likely to forget their preparation during production (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:383).
Fig. 3 Example of Director's Crib Notes for Production (2013)
The director's script analysis, and the subsequent shooting plan should then not just be translated into film, but rather should inform the discussions the director has with the rest of the production team as everyone collaborates to create the final film (Gio, 2014).
Working with the Crew
Fig. 4 Director Sofia Coppola working with cinematographer Lance Acord on the set of Lost in Translation (2003)
To direct the crew in a way which will be most beneficial to the production, a director should:
- Tell the crew about the screenplay's story and theme as well as what drew them to the story as a director, since this helps the crew understand how the director wants to tell the story, and why
- Prepare a shooting plan which shows what coverage needs to be achieved for each scene
- Make sure their instructions to the crew are reasonable and clear
- Ensure any changes - such as to blocking or lighting - they make will be of value to the film
- Motivate the crew and be enthusiastic about the film
- Consider any suggestions made by the crew
- Trust each crew member to effectively do their own job
(Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:403).
By directing in this way, the director ensures that the crew has as much information as possible, so that they know what they need to do and why (Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 2, episode 1, 2014).
When answering questions or giving direction to crew members, a director needs to also be able to "produce brief, practical instructions in wording that cannot be misinterpreted" (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404). Yet, the director should focus on the actors, and shaping their performances, allowing the director of photography and assistant director to answer any technical questions (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404). The director should only be involved in the technical side of filming when they check the composition and framing of a new shot, which can be done by looking trough the viewfinder of the camera (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404).
When answering questions or giving direction to crew members, a director needs to also be able to "produce brief, practical instructions in wording that cannot be misinterpreted" (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404). Yet, the director should focus on the actors, and shaping their performances, allowing the director of photography and assistant director to answer any technical questions (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404). The director should only be involved in the technical side of filming when they check the composition and framing of a new shot, which can be done by looking trough the viewfinder of the camera (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:404).
The script supervisor helps the director keep track of the continuity of all of the elements in the scene - from props, to how the actors move (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:407). The script supervisor usually watches from next to the camera - or, sometimes, through a monitor - and tells the director between takes, "what has been shot, what's up next", as well as considering with them how the remaining set-ups will be completed within the available time (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:410).
A director can also track the progress of the shoot by watching dailies - this is the unedited footage which was shot that day - with the crew (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:405). It has been advised that directors should not watch dailies with actors, since this can cause the actor to become aware of nuances of their performance and thus start to self-direct (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:406).
The director typically watches the dailies with the director of photography and other department heads, as well as sometimes with the producer (Rea & Irving, 2015:255). The aim of this is to allow the crew the chance to see any problems within the footage and solve them before wrapping filming for the day (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:405).
Hence, from how the director works with the crew, it can be seen that they collaborate closely with the heads of department, and therefore need to have a good relationship with each of them (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). If this is not the case, and there is conflict, the producer can act as a "mediator", discussing any problems off set, and working to solve them so that the production doesn't suffer (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). This is one way the producer helps the production run smoothly through supporting the cast and crew (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
The producer can also do this by acknowledging when the cast and crew do good work, as well as by ensuring that the set is comfortable (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). The producer should ensure that the cast and crew are comfortable by providing refreshments on set, a space to wait and take breaks between takes where they will be warm and dry, and that there is time for regular breaks - this will help the cast and crew stay motivated (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:406). Like the director, the producer should also be positive to help with motivation (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
The producer can also do this by acknowledging when the cast and crew do good work, as well as by ensuring that the set is comfortable (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). The producer should ensure that the cast and crew are comfortable by providing refreshments on set, a space to wait and take breaks between takes where they will be warm and dry, and that there is time for regular breaks - this will help the cast and crew stay motivated (Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:406). Like the director, the producer should also be positive to help with motivation (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
Overall, the producer acts as a "troubleshooter" during production, supporting the cast and crew, but also working to solve any problems which arise (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
Logistics
Problems during production may involve the production running behind schedule or going over budget. The producer can ensure that the production stays on schedule from the first day of filming by setting a time - agreed with the director and department heads - by which the first shot must be completed (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). This determines if the production ends up ahead of schedule, on schedule, or behind, depending on whether this is achieved or not (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
If the production runs behind schedule, the producer should discuss this with the director, the assistant director, and the director of photography, away from the set, considering if shots, scenes, or pages can be cut, or whether several shots can be changed for a single shot (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). The producer should then continue to monitor and adjust the schedule depending on the pace of the production (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
The producer also monitors the budget, ensuring that the production does not overspend (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). To do this, a producer should agree with and monitor any spending by maintaining "a complete itemization of every expenditure and a thorough collection of receipts and bills" (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
As part of their role as "coordinator", the producer may also monitor the weather forecast if the plan is to film outside (Rea & Irving, 2015:257). This allows them to prepare if it is predicted to rain on any of the shooting days, ensuring that the cast and crew can continue filming by providing them with a set inside which can act as a substitute for the exterior or with umbrellas, raincoats, and any cover they may need for the filming equipment, as well as somewhere dry to take breaks, if filming outside is to continue (Rea & Irving, 2015:257).
Overall, the main responsibility of the producer as coordinator is to ensure that locations, transport, and catering are arranged, and that these arrangements are re-confirmed when necessary, since the producer should "never assume anything" (Rea & Irving, 2015:257).
The director should also coordinate the cast and crew by ensuring that the following is supplied for each day of shooting:
In general, it has been said that, during production, "there will be little time to solve problems", and that for this reason, the director and producer, along with the department heads, should have pre-empted and planned for any problems during pre-production to allow production to run smoothly (Worthington, 2009:122). Hence, the most important thing for the producer and director during the production stage is that they have planned effectively enough during the pre-production stage and are therefore ready for work on the film to progress through production, and into post-production (Rea & Irving, 2015:239).
If the production runs behind schedule, the producer should discuss this with the director, the assistant director, and the director of photography, away from the set, considering if shots, scenes, or pages can be cut, or whether several shots can be changed for a single shot (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). The producer should then continue to monitor and adjust the schedule depending on the pace of the production (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
The producer also monitors the budget, ensuring that the production does not overspend (Rea & Irving, 2015:258). To do this, a producer should agree with and monitor any spending by maintaining "a complete itemization of every expenditure and a thorough collection of receipts and bills" (Rea & Irving, 2015:258).
As part of their role as "coordinator", the producer may also monitor the weather forecast if the plan is to film outside (Rea & Irving, 2015:257). This allows them to prepare if it is predicted to rain on any of the shooting days, ensuring that the cast and crew can continue filming by providing them with a set inside which can act as a substitute for the exterior or with umbrellas, raincoats, and any cover they may need for the filming equipment, as well as somewhere dry to take breaks, if filming outside is to continue (Rea & Irving, 2015:257).
Overall, the main responsibility of the producer as coordinator is to ensure that locations, transport, and catering are arranged, and that these arrangements are re-confirmed when necessary, since the producer should "never assume anything" (Rea & Irving, 2015:257).
The director should also coordinate the cast and crew by ensuring that the following is supplied for each day of shooting:
- A list of the contacts of the entire cast and crew - ideally mobile numbers
- Call sheets prior to the shooting day - these could also include directions to any locations
- A list of the planned shots and scenes which will be filmed that day
- Coverage which will be filmed that day - the director determines this with the director of photography and script supervisor
- Overhead diagrams for the camera crew
- A lighting plan, which is created by the director of photography from the overhead diagrams
- Any props or costumes which will be needed that day
- Lists of anything that needs to be remembered that day, which are the responsibility of the assistant director
(Rabiger & Hurbis-Cherrier, 2013:384-5).
In general, it has been said that, during production, "there will be little time to solve problems", and that for this reason, the director and producer, along with the department heads, should have pre-empted and planned for any problems during pre-production to allow production to run smoothly (Worthington, 2009:122). Hence, the most important thing for the producer and director during the production stage is that they have planned effectively enough during the pre-production stage and are therefore ready for work on the film to progress through production, and into post-production (Rea & Irving, 2015:239).
List of Illustrations
Figure 1. Producer Kathleen Kennedy & Director Rian Johnson on the set of The Last Jedi (2018) [Behind the scenes photograph, IMDb] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8080556/mediaviewer/rm2073577984 (Accessed on 2 April 2020).
Figure 2. Example of marking the beats of a script (2019) [Diagram] At: https://dramatics.org/beat-analysis/ (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
Figure 2. Example of marking the beats of a script (2019) [Diagram] At: https://dramatics.org/beat-analysis/ (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
Figure 3. Example of Director's Crib Notes for Production (2013) In: Rabiger, M. & Hurbis-Cherrier, M. (2013) Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press. p.384.
Figure 4. Director Sofia Coppola working with cinematographer Lance Acord on the set of Lost in Translation (2003) [Behind the scenes photograph, IMDb] At: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0335266/mediaviewer/rm200972544 (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
References
Cullens, J. (2019) 'Beat It: Understanding Beats in Script Analysis.' In: Dramatics Magazine 27/9/19. At: https://dramatics.org/beat-analysis/ (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
Gio, W. (2014) A Director Prepares: Visual Script Breakdown. At: https://waondering.com/2014/08/09/a-director-prepares-visual-script-breakdown/?utm_content=bufferb3cd1&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer (Accessed on 2 April 2020).
Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 2, episode 1 (2014) [Television Programme] Netflix 21/9/14. At: https://www.netflix.com/search?q=off%20camera&jbv=80102549&jbp=0&jbr=0 (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
Gio, W. (2014) A Director Prepares: Visual Script Breakdown. At: https://waondering.com/2014/08/09/a-director-prepares-visual-script-breakdown/?utm_content=bufferb3cd1&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer (Accessed on 2 April 2020).
Off Camera with Sam Jones: Season 2, episode 1 (2014) [Television Programme] Netflix 21/9/14. At: https://www.netflix.com/search?q=off%20camera&jbv=80102549&jbp=0&jbr=0 (Accessed on 24 April 2020).
Rabiger, M. & Hurbis-Cherrier, M. (2013) Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. (5th ed.) Oxon: Focal Press.
Rea, P. & Irving, D. (2015) Producing and Directing the Short Film and Video. Oxon: Focal Press.
Thomas, C. (2017) Script Analysis for Directors - Five Top Tips. At: https://www.raindance.org/script-analysis-for-directors-five-top-tips/ (Accessed on 1 April 2020).
Worthington, C. (2009) Producing. Switzerland: AVA Publishing.
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